Alberto Levy. Director de Consultoría, Innovation & Growth. Deloitte Latin America Countries Organization

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Cognición y emoción

por Alberto Levy | 29 de Junio de 2009 | General

Este articulo ha sido extraido de mi libro “Liderazgo y Ansiedad de Combate” publicado por la Escuela Superior de Guerra del Ejército Argentino.

La emoción es un estado afectivo intencional. La emoción responde al significado evaluativo del evento. (Clore y Ortony, 2000).

El efecto de las emociones y el Estado de Animo impactan en la Atención, Memoria y Pensamiento produciendo:

- Reducción de calidad de la información.
- Reducción en eficiencia del procesamiento de la información.
- Efectos de sesgo.
- Tendencia a confusión en el proceso.
- Tendencia a confusión en el contenido.
- Percepción de gente.
- Reducción de Recursos de Memoria.

Uno de los impactos fundamentales descripto en la Fisiología del Miedo es el impacto en el Appraisal (Apreciación de Situación) que produce la llamada Memoria de Túnel o “Foco en el Arma” en la que el combatiente sólo se concentra en el arma que lo apunta borrando la atención de todos los sucesos periféricos, aumentando así su vulnerabilidad

Se parte de la idea de que la emoción es una de un gran conjunto de complejas y diferenciadas condiciones biológicas que tratan sobre “algo” en los humanos las condiciones normalmente están caracterizadas por la presencia de cuatro componentes principales:

- Un componente cognitivo
- Un componente motivacional-comportamental
- Un componente somático
- Un componente subjetivo-experiencial

El componente cognitivo consiste en la representación -conciente o no conciente- del significado emocional o de la significancia personal de algún aspecto relevante percibido por la persona en el mundo.

El componente motivacional-comportamental tiene que ver con las inclinaciones a actuar sobre los constructos que estas representaciones representan y con su relación con lo que realmente se hace.

El componente somático implica la activación del sistema nervioso autónomo y del sistema nervioso central y con sus efectos viscerales y musculoesqueletales implicando procesos neuroquímicos y neuroanatómicos. (Damasio, 1994).

El componente subjetivo-experiencial es la parte total del sentimiento subjetivo de la emoción particularmente elaborado en humanos y que implica una estructura sistémica de sentimientos, creencias, deseos y sensaciones corporales.

La perspectiva cognitiva de la emoción se enfoca en el componente cognitivo sobre la base de que la emoción depende del significado o la significancia percibida en una situación dada a la que se le otorga valor o sentido emocional. (Mandler, 1984).

Las emociones por definición son sobre “algo” y tienen que ver con estados afectivos de valencia positiva o negativa que poseen los objetos (para los filósofos estos estados se llaman “intencionales”). Esto implica que no todo sentimiento afectivo constituye una emoción. Por ejemplo en la medida en que “miedo” refiere a un estado afectivo dirigido a un objeto específico, esto califica como emoción pero si “ansiedad” refiere a un estado afectivo sin un objeto “target”, no estaríamos hablando de una emoción.

En la aplicación a nuestro Modelo, partiremos de la premisa de que los líderes generan emociones de mayor o menor valencia para el sujeto, según cuál sea el conjunto de atributos, valores y beneficios que ese líder le elicita.. Qué le “marca” esa marca. Cuál es su significado o su “semanticidad”.

Si consideramos a las emociones como un “conjunto de procesos (cognitivos, conductuales, neurofisiológicos, experienciales) que componen un estado mental intencional de corta duración podemos decir que estaríamos ante escenarios diferentes según si el vínculo con el comandante, el “seguimiento” es de largo plazo o momentáneo. Si es de largo plazo ya estaría implicando un proceso de sentimiento con más intervención de la Memoria de Largo Plazo.

Volviendo al trabajo de Clore y Ortony, se postulan tres tipos de estructuras de valor subyacentes en las percepciones de lo bueno y lo malo: objetivos, standards y actitudes.

Cualquier cosa, al ser vista como un objeto, puede ser experienciada como deseable o no deseable, como interesante o no interesante, dependiendo de que sus atributos sean compatibles o no con el gusto y la actitud de quien decide. La organización estructural sistémica de estas tres fuentes de afecto generan diferentes dimensiones de valor que provocan diferentes tipos de reacciones afectivas. Es decir, cuando la fuente son los objetivos, uno puede sentir placer con los resultados evaluados como deseables y displacer con los resultados evaluados como no deseables.

En contraste con este primer caso, algunas emociones se basan en standares en lugar de en objetivos. Orgullo, vergüenza, admiración y reproche son formas de reacciones afectivas de aprobación o desaprobación de las acciones de un sujeto. La emoción específica depende de si la acción es propia (orgullo, vergüenza) o de otro (admiración, reproche).

Otras emociones están basadas en actitudes o gustos. Emociones tales como amor, odio y disgusto momentáneos, son formas de reacciones afectivas de gusto o de disgusto. La explicación de cómo estos gustos y preferencias se desarrollan es muy difícil pero juega un rol importante en el dominio cognitivo. Por ejemplo, el gusto por una comida puede ser afectado significativamente por las creencias del sujeto sobre qué es lo que está comiendo.

Finalmente además de las emociones exclusivamente basadas en objetivos, standards o emociones, algunas, como la ira y la gratitud implican un foco conjunto en la que se intersectan simultáneamente objetivos y standards. Por ejemplo, el nivel de ira depende de cómo pueden ser de indeseables los resultados de un evento y cuánta culpabilidad pueden provocar las acciones relativas.

Que las emociones estén constituidas por elementos cognitivos no significa que en sí mismas sean eventos cognitivos. En este sentido Reisenzein (1998) sostiene que las emociones son meta-cognitivas o meta-representacionales. Propone que la emoción no es una reacción ante un resultado cognitivo de la evaluación de un proceso sino de una forma no cognitiva de esa evaluación. Que la evaluación conduce directamente tanto a las emociones y a las creencias como formas alternativas de representar la significación de la situación. Que las emociones tienen elementos constitutivos cognitivos en el sentido de que las evaluaciones son transformaciones de inputs sensoriales primarios (mensajes de la imagen del comandante) convertidas en representaciones psicológicas con significado emocional.

Un tema fundamental es el de la reinstalación de las emociones. El punto central de las reinstalación no es la opinión obvia de que la gente aprende de su experiencia sino la idea de que una situación actual puede activar episodios anteriores completos en lugar de meras generalizaciones derivadas de ellos o una regla abstracta que estos llevan implícitos.

Los autores proponen que las emociones pueden despertarse a través de la reinstalación de significados emocionales anteriores, así como también cuando una situación actual recuerda (Priming) una situación emocional anterior y que en ciertas circunstancias el sujeto puede ser sorprendido por las emergencias de tales emociones. Los autores sostienen, sin embargo, que esto de ninguna manera altera la naturaleza esencialmente cognitiva de las condiciones elicitantes que hagan que estas emociones sean experimentadas. Muchos de los fenómenos que podrían inicialmente aparecer como desafiando la perspectiva cognitiva de la emoción no tienen ninguna relación con esta última. En realidad, se trata de fenómenos cognitivos generales muy familiares para los psicólogos cognitivos.

Cuando una percepción activa implicancias emocionales, también puede gatillar el rango completo de procesos involucrados en los estados emocionales ya que la liga entre las percepciones que tiene significados emocionales y la elicitación de una emoción es automática. A pesar de que la liga entre evaluaciones y emociones puede ser exclusiva para el caso de las emociones, los procesos cognitivos que tienen que ver con las evaluaciones no lo son.

Por lo tanto, a pesar de que los autores reconocen dos formas diferentes en el despertar de las emociones, consideran que las emociones son las mismas más allá de cuál de estas dos formas está involucrada en cualquier caso particular. No importa si en un caso individual de miedo o ira es despertado por cómputos on-line, por condicionamiento, por imitación de otros o por predisposiciones típicas de una especie, el miedo es siempre la respuesta a una amenaza aparente y la ira una respuesta a perjuicio posible. A pesar de que los mismos pensamientos, sentimientos y actividades psicológicas no ocurren en cada instancia, por ejemplo, ira, todas las situaciones que gatillan ira involucran percepciones generales de que todo sujeto con ira habrá de compartir en todas las ocasiones que la ira se presente.

Los autores proponen que las emociones reflejan “necesariamente” evaluaciones con respecto al significado de situaciones. Estas evaluaciones pueden surgir de dos procesos diferentes pero argumentan que estas dos rutas diferentes reflejan procesos cognitivos en general y por lo tanto, no son exclusivos de la emoción.

Con respecto a las funciones de la emoción, dos de las más comúnmente atribuidas a las emociones (especialmente a las negativas) son la preparación para la acción rápida (Toates, 1987) y flexibilidad de acción (Scherer, 1984) pero estas son dos visiones casi paradojales. Mientras que la preparación es valorable para actuar con velocidad, la flexibilidad puede requerir la necesidad de refrenar la acción rápida.

En definitiva, loa autores consideran que sus argumentos proveen una respuesta interesante al tema de la implicancia de la cognición en la emoción con respecto al interrogante “siempre, a veces o nunca?” su respuesta, por supuesto, siempre. De esta manera presentan diez propuestas:

1- Las evaluaciones son constitutivas y, por lo tanto, condiciones necesarias para las emociones.

2- Las emociones consisten en estados afectivos con objetos. Siempre las emociones son sobre “algo” y este “sobre algo” constituye una forma útil para distinguir a las emociones de otros estados tales como los estados de ánimo. Tales estados psicológicos intencionales son cognitivos en tanto las cosas de las que tratan necesariamente son representadas y la representación es la esencia de la cognición.

3- Existen dos rutas hacia la evaluación emocional. Estas son la reinstalación y el cómputo. No sólo disponemos de cómputos on-line de situaciones actuales con respecto a fuentes psicológicas de valor. Tales como objetivos, standards y actitudes, sino que también tenemos reinstalaciones de emociones previas cuando una situación actual elicita evaluaciones (y, por lo tanto, emociones) típicas de una situación anterior.

4- Estas formas de evaluación implican dos formas de categorización: prototipo y teoría. Una situación actual puede ser categorizada como emocionalmente significativa en función de su relación con situaciones emocionales pasadas. Esta forma basada en un prototipo (caso, ejemplar) puede ser contrastada con otra categorización basada en una teoría en la que las características de la situación actual son estructuradas (no necesariamente concientemente) como las características definitorias de alguna emoción particular.

5- Las dos rutas de la evaluación emocional y las dos formas de categorización están gobernadas por dos formas de razonamiento: el asociativo y el reglamentado. Una emoción reinstalada (y una categorización por prototipo) puede ser soportada por un razonamiento asociativo operando en base a la similaridad perceptual. Emociones elicitadas por cómputos on-line de evaluaciones (y categorizaciones basadas en teorías) pueden ser soportadas por un razonamiento reglamentado (que puede no ser conciente, explícito o fácilmente articulado).

6- Las dos rutas hacia la evaluación emocional o la categorización pueden servir diferentes funciones comportamentales (preparación y flexibilidad). La preparación y la velocidad de acción que brinda requiere velocidad de procesamiento. La categorización de situaciones actuales sobre la base de la similaridad de características superficiales con las de situaciones emocionales prototípicas pueden inclusive ocurrir antes de que haya sido establecida la identidad del estímulo, de que su contexto haya sido procesado o que hayan sidos generados sentimientos emocionales apropiados (LeDoux, 1966). La flexibilidad de respuesta es una segunda ventaja conferida por la emoción (Scherer, 1984). Esta es mejor lograda en base a procesamiento reglamentado.

7- El hecho de que algunos componentes de la emoción puedan ser gatillados antes de una plena conciencia de su causa no entra en conflicto con la visión cognitiva. Esta visión sostiene exclusivamente que el gatillo de los procesos emocionales se basa en la representación de la significación de un estímulo más que en el estímulo en sí mismo.

8- La elicitación conciente e inconciente sólo difieren en cuanto a restricciones episódicas y significados emocionales. Ninguno de estos fenómenos requiere una explicación extra-cognitiva.

9- Las emociones automatizadas, condicionadas, imitadas y reinstaladas son todas manifestaciones de evaluaciones reinstaladas.

10- Las manifestaciones experienciales y las motivacionales/comportamentales de las apreciaciones, a pesar de la dificultad de ser descriptas en lenguaje, pueden ser comunicadas a través de significados connotativos. El significado connotativo tiene una sorprendente relación directa con la acción y es naturalmente representado en la gente como sentimientos más que como proposiciones expresables lingüísticamente.

Bibliografía

Clore Gerald L. y Andrew Ortony. “Cognición en emoción: Siempre, a veces o nunca?”. En R.D. Lane y L. Nadel (Eds.) Cognitive Neuroscience of Emotion, Oxford: Oxford University Press y su aplicación en la toma de decisiones de consume o elección (2000).

Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descarte´s Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. New York: Putman.

LeDoux, J.E. (1996). The Emotional Brain. New York: Simon

and Schuster.

Mandler, G. (1984). Mind and Body. New York: Norton.

Reisenzein, R. (1998). A theory of emotional feelings as meta representational states of mind. Unpublished manuscript, University of Bielefeld, Germany.

Scherer, K.R. (1984). On the nature and function of emotion: a component process approach. In K. R. Scherer & P. Ekman (Eds), Approaches to Emotion (pp. 293-317). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Toates, F.M (1987). Motivation and emotion from a biological perspective. In V. Hamilton, G. H. Bower & N.H. Frijda (Eds), Cognitive Perspectives on Emotion and Motivation (pp.3-36). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.



124 comentarios para “Cognición y emoción”

  1. Muy buen articulo Avi. La verdad que el tema es más complejo de lo que uno se imagina. De ahi lo que vos decis que los sistemas humanos son muy complejos, ya que los pensamientos, emociones y motivaciones de cada individuo están influenciados por un sin número de factores.
    Entender como funciona (aunque sea en terminos generales) el mecanismo del pensamiento, de las emociones y motivaciones resulta muy importante para poder dirigir y guiar cualquier organización, sin mecionar que es de gran valor para entender y guiar nuestra propia conducta… y volvemos a la máxima más importante de la historia: “Conocete a ti mismo” esa es la clave, es el punto de partida… y yo agregaría que “el saber nos hará libres”..
    Avi, gracias por la bibliografia recomendada… vuelvo a sentir que “solo sé que no sé nada” jeje.. pero al menos está la voluntad..
    Hoy te estoy llamando a Deloitte.
    Saludos!

  2. Aunque en nuestro pensamiento y actuaciones nos queramos entender como individuales y genuinos, siempre seremos la resultante de un sinnumero de estimulos externos que terminan condicionandonos de manera consciente o incosciente. El reto será lograr obtener resultantes destacadas que aunque precedan de componentes iguales en otros lideres, desarrollen ventajas por los logros sin precedentes.

  3. Busque en la red a Stanley Schachter y Jerome Singer, que escriben acerca de la teoría de activiación cognitiva; ellos al igual, aceptaban que la realimentación o feedback no es lo suficientemente específica para determinar qué emoción sentimos en una situación determinada pero creían que también era importante. Su idea consistía en que el feedback de la activación física es un buen indicador de que ocurre algo significativo, aun cuando no sea capaz de comunicar exactamente qué ocurre. Una vez que detectamos la activación física mediante el feedback, intentamos examinar nuestras circunstancias. A partir de nuestra evaluación cognitiva de la situación, clasificamos la activación. La clasificación de la activación es lo que determina la emoción que sentimos. Según Schachter y Singer, la cognición llena el vacío entre la falta de especificidad del feedback físico y los sentimientos.
    Sería:
    Estímulo → Activación → Cognición → Sentimiento
    Gracias Avi por las referencia bibliográficas y por continuar aportando a nuestro desarrollo. Vayamos siempre por más en el camino del aprendizaje.

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  73. What i don’t understood is in fact how you’re now not really much more neatly-liked than you might be now. You’re very intelligent. You realize thus considerably with regards to this subject, produced me personally imagine it from a lot of various angles. Its like men and women are not fascinated unless it’s something to accomplish with Woman gaga! Your own stuffs excellent. All the time handle it up!

  74. Apple now has Rhapsody as an app, which is a great start, but it is currently hampered by the inability to store locally on your iPod, and has a dismal 64kbps bit rate. If this changes, then it will somewhat negate this advantage for the Zune, but the 10 songs per month will still be a big plus in Zune Pass’ favor.

  75. The new Zune browser is surprisingly good, but not as good as the iPod’s. It works well, but isn’t as fast as Safari, and has a clunkier interface. If you occasionally plan on using the web browser that’s not an issue, but if you’re planning to browse the web alot from your PMP then the iPod’s larger screen and better browser may be important.

  76. The new Zune browser is surprisingly good, but not as good as the iPod’s. It works well, but isn’t as fast as Safari, and has a clunkier interface. If you occasionally plan on using the web browser that’s not an issue, but if you’re planning to browse the web alot from your PMP then the iPod’s larger screen and better browser may be important.

  77. I’ll gear this review to 2 types of people: current Zune owners who are considering an upgrade, and people trying to decide between a Zune and an iPod. (There are other players worth considering out there, like the Sony Walkman X, but I hope this gives you enough info to make an informed decision of the Zune vs players other than the iPod line as well.)

  78. Sorry for the huge review, but I’m really loving the new Zune, and hope this, as well as the excellent reviews some other people have written, will help you decide if it’s the right choice for you.

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  86. What you said made a lot of sense. But, think about this, what if you added a little content? I mean, I dont want to tell you how to run your blog, but what if you added something to maybe get peoples attention? Just like a video or a picture or two to get people excited about what youve got to say. In my opinion, it would make your blog come to life a little bit.

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  90. The Zune concentrates on being a Portable Media Player. Not a web browser. Not a game machine. Maybe in the future it’ll do even better in those areas, but for now it’s a fantastic way to organize and listen to your music and videos, and is without peer in that regard. The iPod’s strengths are its web browsing and apps. If those sound more compelling, perhaps it is your best choice.

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  96. Sorry for the huge review, but I’m really loving the new Zune, and hope this, as well as the excellent reviews some other people have written, will help you decide if it’s the right choice for you.

  97. I do agree with all the ideas you have presented in your post. They are very convincing and will certainly work. Still, the posts are too short for beginners. Could you please extend them a little from next time? Thanks for the post.

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  112. Apple now has Rhapsody as an app, which is a great start, but it is currently hampered by the inability to store locally on your iPod, and has a dismal 64kbps bit rate. If this changes, then it will somewhat negate this advantage for the Zune, but the 10 songs per month will still be a big plus in Zune Pass’ favor.

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  115. This is getting a bit more subjective, but I much prefer the Zune Marketplace. The interface is colorful, has more flair, and some cool features like ‘Mixview’ that let you quickly see related albums, songs, or other users related to what you’re listening to. Clicking on one of those will center on that item, and another set of “neighbors” will come into view, allowing you to navigate around exploring by similar artists, songs, or users. Speaking of users, the Zune “Social” is also great fun, letting you find others with shared tastes and becoming friends with them. You then can listen to a playlist created based on an amalgamation of what all your friends are listening to, which is also enjoyable. Those concerned with privacy will be relieved to know you can prevent the public from seeing your personal listening habits if you so choose.

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  123. Sorry for the huge review, but I’m really loving the new Zune, and hope this, as well as the excellent reviews some other people have written, will help you decide if it’s the right choice for you.

  124. The Zune concentrates on being a Portable Media Player. Not a web browser. Not a game machine. Maybe in the future it’ll do even better in those areas, but for now it’s a fantastic way to organize and listen to your music and videos, and is without peer in that regard. The iPod’s strengths are its web browsing and apps. If those sound more compelling, perhaps it is your best choice.


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